Search results for: “convection”

Layered Latte Physics
Latte lovers may be familiar with the layered latte, a beverage with distinctive horizontal layers mixing espresso and milk, but you may not have taken the time to wonder how these layers form. Like many layering phenomena in our oceans, the layered latte is the result of double-diffusive convection. This means that there are two variables that both affect density in the fluid mixture and that they act at different rates.
In the latte, those factors are 1) the different densities of the milk and espresso and 2) density changes caused as the latte cools to room temperature. A layered latte forms when the lighter espresso is poured into denser milk. If it’s poured quickly enough, the momentum of the pour forces some of the espresso down into the milk, despite the buoyant force that tries to keep the espresso on top. So that initial pour sets up a density gradient that runs from pure espresso at the top to pure milk on the bottom, with varying mixtures of the two in between.
The distinct layers won’t form until the latte begins cooling off. Along the walls of the container, heat is lost more quickly, causing fluid to cool and start sinking. But a specific bit of fluid can only sink until the fluid surrounding it is the same density. That can carry a cooler bit of latte to the bottom of a layer, but not into the denser layer below. At this point, our bit of latte moves inward, starts to warm up, and circulates up through the center of its layer. As when it sank, the fluid can only move up until it encounters a layer with equal or lesser density, at which point it must move horizontally instead. This thermal convection, combined with the density gradient formed by the initial pour, sets up the distinctive layers of the latte. The layers are quite stable – neither gentle stirring nor taking a sip will disrupt them for long – provided the drink remains warmer than the surrounding air. (Image credits: kopeattugu/Instagram, N. Xue et al.; research credit: N. Xue et al.; via NYTimes; submitted by Kam-Yung Soh)
December 18, 2017
Resisting Coalescence
When a droplet falls on a pool, we expect it to coalesce. There are exceptions, like bouncing droplets, but in general a droplet only sticks around for a split second before being engulfed. And yet, from morning coffee (top image) to walks in the woods, we frequently see millimeter-sized droplets sticking around for far longer than it seems like they should. New research offers a clue as to why: it’s thanks to a temperature difference.
When there’s an appreciable temperature difference between the drop and the pool, it causes rotating convective vortices (bottom image) in both the drop and the pool. When the temperature difference is large, the vortices are strong enough that their motion recirculates air inside the tiny gap between the drop and the pool. This supports the weight of the drop and keeps the two liquids separate. But the convection also redistributes heat, and eventually the drop and pool become similar enough in temperature that the circulation dies out, the air gap drains, and the two coalesce. (Image and research credit: M. Geri et al.; via MIT News; submitted by Antony B.)
November 28, 2017
Plate Tectonics
We don’t typically think of the ground beneath our feet as anything but solid, but over geologically long time scales, even mountains can flow. Buoyant convection inside the Earth’s mantle is thought to drive the plate tectonics that have shaped the Earth as we know it. The video above explains some of the major processes and events that shaped the modern North American continent, including collisions, subduction, volcanism, and erosion. (Video credit: Ted-Ed)
November 23, 2017
Inside Earth’s Core
Without our magnetic field, life as we know it could not exist on Earth. Instead, our atmosphere would be stripped away and the surface would be bombarded by charged particles in the solar wind. Relatively little is known about the dynamo process that governs our magnetic field, though it’s thought to be the result of liquid iron moving in the Earth’s outer core. The video above shows a slice of a recent 3D simulation of this liquid iron segment of our core. The colors show variations in the temperature, revealing vigorous convection in the core. This motion, combined with the spinning of the Earth, is the likely source of our magnetic field. Researchers hope that simulations like these can help us understand features we observe in our magnetic field – like local variations in field strength and the pole reversals in our geological record. (Video credit: N. Schaeffer et al.; CNRS via Gizmodo)
August 29, 2017
Creating Clouds
What you see here is the formation of clouds and rain – but it’s not quite what you’re used to seeing outside. This is an experiment using a mixture of sulfur hexafluoride and helium to create clouds in a laboratory. Everything is contained in a cell between two transparent plates. Liquid sulfur hexafluoride takes up about half of the cell, and when the lower plate is heated, that liquid begins evaporating and rising in the bright regions. When it reaches the cooled top plate, the liquid condenses into droplets inside the dimples on the plate, eventually growing large enough to fall back as rain. The dark wisps you see are areas where cold sulfur hexafluoride is sinking, much like in the water clouds we are used to. Setups like this one allow scientists to study the effects of turbulence on cloud physics and the formation of droplets. (Image credit: E. Bodenschatz et al., source)
Boston-area folks! I’ll be taking part in the Improbable Research show Saturday evening at 8 pm at the Sheraton Boston. Come hear about the Boston Molasses Flood and other bizarre research!
February 17, 2017
“Pulse”
Photographer Mike Olbinski returns with another incredible storm-chasing timelapse video, this time all in black-and-white. To me, that choice helps “Pulse” emphasize the ominous majesty of these supercells and tornadoes by highlighting the textures that make up the clouds. Watching clouds in timelapse, they seem to materialize from nowhere as moisture drawn up from the land cools and condenses. Sped up, suddenly the convective rotation and the roiling turbulence inside clouds is perfectly clear. I especially love the sequence beginning at 2:25, where a distant black line slowly transforms into an incredible landscape marked with successive waves of rolling, turbulent clouds. Watch this one on a large screen at a high resolution, if you can. You won’t regret it! (Video credit: M. Olbinski)
January 10, 2017
Coarsening in a Soap Film
Flow in a soap film is driven by gravity’s efforts to thin the film and surface tension’s attempts to stabilize variations in thickness. Because evaporation guarantees that the soap film will eventually dry out, gravity typically wins the battle and causes a soap film to rupture. This video takes a close look at what happens in the film just before it ruptures. Black dots form in the thinnest region of the flow. These areas are not holes, but they appear black because they are thinner than any wavelength of visible light. Before rupture, the black dots begin coalescing with one another, first due to diffusion and later more rapidly due to convection in the soap film. Ultimately, the black dots are the harbingers of doom for the fragile bubble. (Video credit: L. Shen et al.)
November 22, 2016
Dust Devils
Dust devils, like fire tornadoes and waterspouts, form from warm, rising air. As the sun heats the ground to temperatures hotter than the surrounding atmosphere, hot air will begin to rise. When it rises, that air leaves behind a region of lower pressure that draws in nearby air. Any vorticity in that air gets intensified as it gets pulled toward the low pressure area. It will start to spin faster, exactly like a spinning ice skater who pulls in his arms. The result is a spinning vortex of air driven by buoyant convection. On Earth, dust devils are typically no more than a few meters in size and can only pick up light objects like leaves or hay. On Mars, dust devils can be hundreds of meters tall, and, though they’re too weak to do much damage, they have helpfully cleaned off the solar panels of some of our rovers! (Image credit: T. Bargman, source; via Gizmodo)
July 26, 2016
“Vorticity”
Photographer Mike Olbinski is back with another storm-chasing timelapse entitled “Vorticity”. Like his previous work, this film is a breath-taking example of physics in action. It is well worth taking a few minutes to watch in fullscreen, at high resolution, and with headphones. Olbinski’s timelapses beautifully capture the incredible dynamic motion of our atmosphere. Fittingly, “Vorticity” is all about the swirling, roiling motion of supercell thunderstorms and the tornadoes they can spawn, but the film also captures many other great phenomena from the convection that builds clouds to unusual formations like undulatus asperatus and mammatus clouds. (Video credit: M. Olbinski; submitted by Paul vdB)
July 18, 2016
Daily Fluids, Part 1
Just getting cleaned up and ready for the day involves a lot of fluid physics. Here are a few of the phenomena you may see daily without realizing:
Plateau-Rayleigh Instability
This behavior is responsible for the dripping of your faucet. More specifically, it’s the reason that a falling jet breaks up into droplets. It works on rain, too!
Forced Convection
Everyone is familiar with a winter wind making them colder or hot air from a dryer getting the moisture off their hands. These are examples of forced convection – heat transfer by driving a fluid past a solid. Another common example? The fans in your computer!
Liquid Atomization
This is the process of breaking a liquid into lots of tiny droplets. Aside from any aerosol can ever, this phenomenon is also key to your daily shower and internal combustion in your car.
Archimedes Principle
This might be one of my favorite bits of the whole video because it hearkens back to some of my own earliest fluid dynamics exposure. Archimedes Principle says that buoyancy is equal to the weight of the fluid a body displaces. My mom (a science teacher) taught me about this one in the bathtub! It’s key to everything that ever floated, including us!
Tune in all week for more examples of fluid dynamics in daily life. (Image credit: S. Reckinger et al., source)
June 21, 2016

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